Hundreds of thousands of protesters are expected to march through French cities, as public workers go on strike on Thursday, in a fresh test for President Emmanuel Macron after weeks of unrest.
The day of action over the cost of living, public services and education follows months of protests that resulted in the worst civil unrest France has seen in years, rattling the government and dominating the agenda five months before a presidential election.
Mr Macron convened a defence and security meeting on Wednesday before the protests.
France's main public and private-sector unions have called for a nationwide mobilisation, bringing together disparate sources of anger, including the grassroots Yellow Vest movement, which emerged in 2018, and students who began protesting in September against overcrowded classrooms, teacher shortages and deteriorating school buildings.
Authorities have sought to lower tension after riots and looting on October 17 caught security forces off guard, leaving damaged shops and public buildings across the country and fuelling criticism of Mr Macron's handling of the crisis.
French authorities will send out about 70,000 police officers nationwide. The domestic intelligence service expects between 500,000 and 700,000 people to join demonstrations outside Paris.
The Education Ministry said 17.5 per cent of public primary school teachers were expected to strike, while unions warned of possible disruption to rail and public transport services.
The strike had already contributed to France's nuclear output being reduced by 2.4 gigawatts early on Thursday. The train operator SNCF expects disruption on local and regional lines and some disturbances to high-speed traffic, while most of the Paris metro system is expected to run. Dockworkers have also called a strike.
With only six months to go before the presidential election, Mr Macron’s critics are seeking to showcase their agendas and channel public anger to bolster their political platforms.
France in flames - in pictures
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Tear gas rises in the Republic Square as anti-riot police clash with protesters during demonstrations against the cost of living, in Paris. Reuters -
Police officers take cover behind their shields during clashes in the city of Nantes. Reuters -
Protesters climb fences in Nantes. Reuters -
A woman jogs past shells of cars burnt during the unrest in Paris. Reuters -
A McDonald's restaurant after its windows were damaged, in Paris. Reuters -
The city hall on fire in Limoges, central France. AFP -
The destroyed Limoges city hall after it was set on fire. AFP -
Heavy smoke around the statue in the Republic Square, in Paris. AFP -
Police officers charge against protesters. AFP -
The violence degenerated into looting and burning nationwide. AFP -
A protester waves a Palestinian flag, in Paris AFP -
A bicycle rack smashed against a window at the Hotel de Nesmond, the state's official residence in Gironde, in Bordeaux. AFP -
People enter a ransacked Franprix store, in central Paris. AFP -
Protesters and students from art and culture schools block the entrance to the Louvre Museum. Reuters
“The demands of the high school and students’ movement should not depend on the adoption of the budget bill,” Eric Coquerel, the leader of the National Assembly’s finance committee and a member of Jean-Luc Melenchon’s far-left party, posted on X. “The government can respond by swiftly opening additional credits” during parliamentary discussions aimed at fine-tuning budget needs for this year.
Far-right candidate Marine Le Pen has emphasised the law-and-order component of her programme, while Mr Melenchon has focused on social issues and police violence.
Mr Macron, meanwhile, has largely blamed surging energy prices, social media and the “ultra-left” for fuelling violence.
