Migrants who move during adolescence have a higher risk of suffering serious mental health disorders in later life, a study has found.
Research suggests moving countries in formative pre-adult years could have profoundly negative effects on mental health, particularly those from non-white backgrounds.
Links between migration and heightened risk of psychosis have previously been highlighted in other studies, however, this research shows age may be a significant factor.
Humma Andleeb, the study's main author, believes changes during a key developmental period may harm mental health in children as they become more independent from their family and spend more time with their peers.
"Our findings suggest that adolescence may be a particularly risky period to migrate in, particularly for certain ethnic groups", Ms Andleeb, of University College London, told The National.
"We already know that adolescence is a key sociodevelopmental period for young people. It is a time when teenagers become more independent, less reliant on their families and spend more time with friends and peers, so any drastic changes may disrupt their lives and pose subsequent risks to their mental health.
"In their new country, they may find it difficult to adjust and adapt to a new school system, culture and make friends as well as experience discrimination and potential language barriers."
The children may face difficulties in establishing relationships, with particular challenges around language, culture or their ethnic background.
Researchers analysed data from 2,132 people in five European countries aged between 18 and 64 as part of a wider research study. Of this group, 937 people had first experienced psychotic disorder some time after moving to their new countries.
After considering numerous socioeconomic factors, including social background and parental history of psychosis, the researchers found people between the ages of 11 and 17 had nearly twice the risk of developing psychosis compared with white people who had not migrated.
The findings, which were published in the journal PLOS Mental Health, did not find an elevated risk for those who moved in infant or early childhood years.
Immigrants from black and north African ethnic groups had a risk two to three times higher than that of the general population, according to Ms Andleeb.
Migrants and their children are more likely to have been exposed to childhood trauma than non-migrants. A previous study found more than a third of first-generation migrants, irrespective of having been diagnosed with first-episode psychosis, had experienced some form of childhood maltreatment.
Ms Andleeb said the team's study highlights the existing inequalities that migrants and adolescents face in society.
She said her findings indicate a need for greater support, psychosocial interventions and early detection techniques for those at risk.
In addition, improved access to education, employment and health care after migration may prevent the development of psychosis later.
Healthcare professionals should pay particular attention to the health of adolescent migrants, particularly those from ethnic groups known to be at higher risk of psychosis, she added.